Dark-centered umbels in Apiaceae: diversity, development, and evolution

Abstract Background and Aims The wild carrot (Daucus carota L.) is famous for its dark flowers in the umbel center. Several studies have been conducted to figure out their functional significance, but evolution of center remains an enigma. In present paper, we consider all known apioid species with dark-centered umbels get a deeper understanding biology evolution. Methods Based on herbaria studies, literature, field work, reconstructed distribution area 10 (seven genera, six clades) Apiaceae-Apioideae. To recognize homology structures, developmental were Artedia squamata L. Echiophora trichophylla Sm. Field included architecture, flower morph (andromonoecy), flowering sequence plants, abundancy behavior visitors, preliminary manipulation experiments (removal/adding structures). Key Results structures are not homologous each other. Daucus alliance, central or umbellets colored, whereas other brush-like (Artedia squamata) club-shaped (Dicyclophora persica Boiss., Echinophora trichophylla, Tordylium aegyptiacum (L.) Poir., T. cappadocicum Boiss.) develop from naked receptacle. Species andromonoecious, modular architecture multicyclic protandrous sequence. Among many beetles most abundant group. Only visitors found both phases recognized as possible pollinators. Manipulation indicated that influence some, visitors. massive gall infection was observed. Conclusion It evident evolved several times parallel. brush- interpreted mutants affecting development. Dark centers likely stabilized by selection due general adaptive function. Their appearance hotpot beetle pollination gives rise assumption they may act marks.